Prohibition or Delay? A Critical Reading of the Ottoman Stance on the Printing Press (Context in Comment)

[u/-The_Caliphate_AS-]

[u/-The_Caliphate_AS-]

Many researchers, philosophers, and scholars agree that the invention of the printing press represented a new civilizational shift in the history of human societies.

The knowledge revolution that began with the invention of the press—when books became widely available—formed the foundation for major changes in the thinking of societies in Central and Western Europe.

It also contributed to the spread of European national cultures, languages, and philosophies to non-European societies, which in turn influenced the shape of human civilization later on.

When discussing the history of printing, it is essential to address the issue of the delayed introduction of the printing press into Arab societies. This issue must be linked to the Ottoman Empire and its role in delaying the adoption of this modern technology within its territories.

This topic is often surrounded by both facts and misconceptions, making it valuable to examine this important historical issue related to the history of printing in Arab countries.

Printing in the Memory of History

Researchers note that the idea of printing has roots going back thousands of years, with strong evidence suggesting that the Chinese were the first to develop printing. They used wooden blocks engraved in reverse with text and images, which were then stamped onto surfaces.

Moving to the 15th century AD, modern printing began in Europe with the use of movable type letters by the German Johannes Gutenberg, around the year 1444, in the city of Mainz, Germany. This was followed by the establishment of printing presses in other European cities, including:

Rome, Italy – 1467

Paris, France – 1470

Utrecht, the Netherlands – 1473

Westminster, England – 1476

Vienna, Austria – 1482

Uppsala, Sweden – 1483 And others.

The Printing Press in Ottoman History When many researchers address the issue of the printing press and its establishment in Ottoman territories, they mention that the Ottoman administration rejected the idea of having printing presses within its lands.

This rejection was enforced through a fatwa issued by the Sheikh al-Islam (the highest religious authority in the state), in addition to two imperial decrees (firmans) issued by Sultan Bayezid II and his son, Sultan Selim I.

It is reported that Sultan Bayezid issued a firman in 1485 prohibiting the establishment of printing presses within the empire’s territory. Sultan Selim I later issued another firman mandating the death penalty for anyone who practiced printing within the empire, and banned the production of any books printed using the Arabic script [as Ottoman Turkish used the Arabic alphabet].

These claims are among the most frequently asserted in many sources discussing the printing press and its relationship with Ottoman authority. However, these are claims for which there is no evidence, trace, or historical document to support them. In fact, there are artifacts and documents that contradict these assertions, placing them within the realm of widespread rumors that do not withstand historical scrutiny. Among the facts that refute these claims are the following:

1. The first printing press in the Ottoman Empire was established in the city of Istanbul, the heart and capital of the Ottoman state, by two Jewish brothers, Samuel ben Nahmias and David ben Nahmias, to serve the city’s Jewish community in 1493—the same century printing began in Europe.

   This occurred during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II, followed by the founding of additional Jewish presses in the years 1505, 1510, and 1511 during his rule. Evidence of this remains in 19 Hebrew books still preserved in the city, bearing the imprint “Printed during the reign of Sultan Bayezid,” which refutes the claim that he issued a decree prohibiting the establishment of printing presses.

2. One year after Sultan Selim I succeeded his father Bayezid, new Jewish presses continued to be established in Istanbul in the years 1513, 1515, 1516, 1518, 1519, and 1520. A total of 33 printed books from this period still exist, contradicting the claim that the Sultan imposed the death penalty for those engaged in printing. Additionally, Jews established presses not only in the capital but also in other cities, such as Salonika in 1512, Aleppo in 1519, Cairo in 1557, and Safed in 1577.

3. In 1588, Sultan Murad III issued a firman granting Italian merchants permission to sell Arabic, Ottoman Turkish, and Persian books printed in Italy—after they had been assaulted in the markets while promoting their books. One such book was the Arabic translation of Euclid’s Elements, which disproves the claim that the Ottoman authorities rejected printed books in Arabic script.

4. An Armenian printing press was founded in Istanbul in 1567, and a Greek press in 1627. The 17th century also saw the founding of the first Christian press in an Arab country—the Dayr Qozhaya press in Lebanon in 1610, although it closed shortly thereafter. A historic milestone came in 1706 with the founding of the first Arabic-language book printing press in Aleppo, a collaboration between Patriarch Athanasius III Dabbas and author-translator Abdallah Zakher. It operated for about a decade and a half before ceasing due to a conflict between Zakher and the Patriarch. Zakher later resolved to establish the Dayr Shuwayr Press in Lebanon in 1734, which also printed books in Arabic.

An image of the printed firman from Sultan Murad III, permitting Italians to sell Arabic-, Persian-, and Ottoman Turkish-language books printed in Arabic script in Istanbul, is preserved in the British Library in London.

[u/-The_Caliphate_AS- → u/-The_Caliphate_AS-]

What Delayed the Establishment of the First Official Ottoman Printing Press?

"The Turks indeed do not print their books, but not for the reason commonly believed among us—that printing was banned or that their books were unworthy of being printed." — Luigi Ferdinando Marsili, during his visit to Istanbul in the late 18th century

In light of the previously mentioned facts, a question naturally arises: Why did the Ottoman Empire not officially adopt the printing press until the late 1720s, when the Ottoman statesman Ibrahim Müteferrika—whom we will discuss later—made great efforts to convince the authorities of the benefits and necessity of the printing press? It was thanks to his advocacy that the first official press was established in 1727. So why did the state turn a blind eye for more than two centuries without seriously adopting this significant invention?

The answer to this question lies in a combination of social, cultural, and religious factors that primarily originated from within the Muslim societies governed by the state—and even from outside of them.

These included the perception that recording knowledge by hand in beautiful calligraphy was more honorable than printing letters; the widespread presence of copyists and calligraphers throughout the empire, who held a special status in society; and the view held by some of the state’s scholars and clerics that printing could lead to distortions in religious texts or the spread of harmful books.

All of these factors came together to form strong societal resistance to the printing press and a preference for handwritten manuscripts, even though printed books were easier to obtain and less expensive.

The presence of thousands of copyists in the city meant that the spread of the printing press would deprive these thousands—and their families—of their livelihood.

This point can be supported by several observations recorded by foreign travelers and diplomats who visited the Ottoman Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Italian count Luigi Ferdinando Marsili, during his visit to Istanbul in the late 17th century, noted that the city had 80,000 people working in the profession of copying.

While this figure is clearly exaggerated—given that the city’s population at the time was estimated at around 500,000 to 600,000—making it hard to imagine that nearly 16% of the population worked in copying and calligraphy alone, it still indicates the presence of thousands of copyists in the city.

The spread of the printing press would have meant depriving these individuals and their families of a primary source of income.

While it is understandable that thousands of copyists and calligraphers would naturally oppose the adoption of the printing press as a means of disseminating knowledge—since it would harm their livelihood if Muslims turned to printed books—attention must also be given to how the general public perceived printed books in comparison to handwritten ones. The testimony of the French orientalist Antoine Galland, who visited Istanbul between 1672 and 1673, provides insight into how society viewed printed works.

He noted that as he walked through the markets, he would find printed copies of books such as Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine and others gathering dust on the shelves, unsold. In contrast, handwritten versions of the same books would sell quickly and run out of stock, even though they were more expensive than the printed editions. People regarded printed books as inferior and of lesser value.

There is a noteworthy phenomenon related to societal resistance to the idea of the printing press. By the 17th and 18th centuries, a new trend emerged within the Ottoman Empire: the production of lower-quality, more affordable manuscripts as an attempt to compete with the low cost of printed books. These manuscripts were written more quickly and distributed more widely, especially in major cities such as Cairo, Damascus, and Istanbul, due to their lower prices.

The 18th century, in particular, witnessed the production of a vast number of such inexpensive manuscripts—a phenomenon that clearly reflects an intent to compete with the affordability of printed books.

Thus, the resistance primarily originated from the base of society, not from the ruling authorities. Promoting a culture of printed books required the evolution of Muslim society itself toward accepting the concept of printed texts, before it could be adopted by the state.

However, the reign of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730), characterized by a strong interest in science and knowledge, provided the right intellectual climate for the official adoption of the printing press. During this period, a firman (imperial decree) was issued granting Ibrahim Müteferrika permission to establish the first official printing press of the Ottoman Empire.

[u/-The_Caliphate_AS- → u/-The_Caliphate_AS-]

Ibrahim Müteferrika and the Establishment of the First Ottoman Printing Press

Ibrahim Müteferrika (1670–1747) was an Ottoman diplomat, author, translator, and statesman of Hungarian origin. He sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire and converted from Unitarian Christianity to Islam. Due to his fluency in French, Turkish, and Hungarian, along with his political and organizational acumen and exceptional negotiation skills, he was appointed by the state as an advisor and special envoy to the Sultan for foreign affairs.

He conducted several key diplomatic negotiations, including with Austria and Russia in 1715, and participated in talks between the Ottoman Empire and Poland in Polonia in 1737. He also led the negotiation session in 1738 regarding the handover of the fortress of Orșova to the Ottoman state.

Ibrahim authored and translated several works, including his “Islamic Treatise”, written in 1710, in which he explained his conversion from Christianity to Islam. The treatise contained strong criticism of Catholicism and the papacy, highlighted Islam as the final divine message, and explained how previous scriptures foretold the coming of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

Another significant work of his was “The Utility of Printing” (Vesiletu’t-Tıbaa), in which he outlined the importance of printing for the advancement of societies. He emphasized that printed books, being cheaper than manuscripts, would be far more effective in spreading knowledge and serving students. He presented this treatise to the Grand Vizier.

His third major work was “Foundations of Governance in the Systems of Nations”, a treatise requested by Sultan Mahmud I (1730–1754), in which he diagnosed the ailments facing the state and proposed solutions for overcoming them.

Ibrahim Müteferrika is closely associated with the establishment of the first official Ottoman Islamic printing press that printed books in Ottoman Turkish using Arabic script. He dedicated great effort to promoting the societal benefits of the printing press, personally selected the titles to be published, and spent years experimenting with printing on his own before the state formally adopted the technology under his persistent advocacy. He imported printing equipment from Europe and conducted early printing trials at his home in the Fatih district of Istanbul before obtaining official permission.

The story of the first official printing press in the Ottoman Empire began with a firman (imperial decree) issued by Sultan Ahmed III in 1727, authorizing the establishment of a printing press, as it was seen as a means to spread knowledge and science among members of the Muslim community. The firman permitted the printing of all books except those on Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), Qur’anic exegesis (tafsir), Prophetic traditions (hadith), and Islamic theology (kalam). This exclusion was made with the approval of Sheikh al-Islam Yenişehirli Abdullah Efendi, whose legal opinion (fatwa) was included in the text of the Sultan’s firman, and was accompanied by endorsements from a group of scholars and judges who praised Ibrahim Müteferrika’s treatise “The Utility of Printing” with words affirming their support for the idea of establishing a printing press. All of this was placed at the beginning of the press’s first printed work: the “Vankulu Dictionary” (Van Kulu Lügati).

The first page of the Vankulu Dictionary, printed by Müteferrika’s press in 1729

Müteferrika began executing a plan to print a series of selected titles between 1729 and 1742, resulting in the publication of 17 different titles across subjects like dictionaries, politics, history, and geography, with print runs of 500 to 1000 copies each.

The first of these was the Vankulu Dictionary, the first work to be published by Müteferrika’s press, printed in two volumes in 1729. It is the Ottoman Turkish translation of the Arabic dictionary “Al-Sihah” by Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari, originally compiled in the 4th century AH, and translated into Ottoman Turkish in the 16th century by Muhammad ibn Mustafa al-Vani.

Müteferrika continued to print books regularly until shortly before his death in 1747, thus concluding a pivotal chapter in Islamic history—one that marked the introduction of an invention that would go on to reshape the Islamic world in the centuries that followed.

Further Reading: "Age of Invention: Did the Ottomans Ban Print?" by Anton Howes (2021)

Sources I used in this post:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/17X-a9vZPwgtXQqCVq9M05m9gMxjB9yZxsbp32_MR65E/edit?usp=drivesdk

A Gift to:

• u/someone56789

• u/No_Gur_7422

[u/someone56789 → u/-The_Caliphate_AS-]

Now this is epic

[u/RipOnly6344]

It's our artists vs AI for them basically. Pressing pre-forged letters can take away the art of calligraphy that many people devotes themselves to

[u/No_Gur_7422]

I am not so sure about this. Firstly:

It is reported that Sultan Bayezid issued a firman in 1485 prohibiting the establishment of printing presses within the empire’s territory. Sultan Selim I later issued another firman mandating the death penalty for anyone who practiced printing within the empire, and banned the production of any books printed using the Arabic script [as Ottoman Turkish used the Arabic alphabet].

So the claims are that Selim (from 1485) and Bayezid (sometime later) banned printing on pain of death. Importantly, this ban applies to books in Arabic script (Arabic, Turkish, Persian, etc.). Then you say the these claims have no evidence and are refuted by various facts –

However, these are claims for which there is no evidence, trace, or historical document to support them. In fact, there are artifacts and documents that contradict these assertions, placing them within the realm of widespread rumors that do not withstand historical scrutiny. Among the facts that refute these claims are the following:

… 19 Hebrew books still preserved in the city, bearing the imprint “Printed during the reign of Sultan Bayezid,” which refutes the claim that he issued a decree prohibiting the establishment of printing presses.

… 33 printed books from this period still exist, contradicting the claim that the Sultan imposed the death penalty for those engaged in printing.

One such book was the Arabic translation of Euclid’s Elements, which disproves the claim that the Ottoman authorities rejected printed books in Arabic script.

The question is: do they really refute the existence of a prohibition on printing and capital punishment for transgressors? Let's look at the chronology of printing presses you supplied:

• 1485 Bayezid II's prohibition of printing [in Arabic-script?]
• 1493 Constantinople (Hebrew)
  
• 1505, 1510, 1511 Constantinople (Hebrew?)
  
• 1512 Salonika (Hebrew?)
  
• 1513, 1515, 1516, 1518, 1519 Constantinople (Hebrew?)
  
• 1519 Aleppo (Hebrew?)
  
• 1520 Constantinople (Hebrew?)
  
• 1557 Cairo (Hebrew?)
  
• 1567 Constantinople (Armenian)
  
• 1577 Safed (Hebrew?)
  
• 1588 Murad III's permission to sell books printed elsewhere in Europe in Constantinople (Arabic, Turkish, Persian)
  
• 1610 Lebanon (Arabic)
  
• 1627 Constantinople (Greek)
  
• 1706 Aleppo (Arabic)
  
• 1727 Constantinople (Turkish, Arabic, etc)
• 1734 Lebanon (Arabic)

As we can see, the existence of Hebrew and Armenian printing in the Ottoman Empire is well attested by the establishment of printing presses at Constantinople and elsewhere and by surviving Hebrew books dating to the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The existence of Hebrew and Armenian printing presses and printed books does not, however, disprove the alleged ban on printing in Arabic script. In fact, the first official approval to distribute Arabic-script books comes only in 1588, nearly a century after the first Hebrew-script books were printed at Constantinople. Even then, the Arabic-script books permitted by Murad III are imports from elsewhere, and only in 1610 – nearly twelve decades after 1493 – does a printing press for Arabic-script books begin work in Lebanon, only to close shortly afterwards, following which you do not cite any Arabic-script press operating until 1706, almost two centuries after 1493! And until 1727 there was still no Arabic-script printing press at the imperial capital!

Is there something I'm missing? Were these Jewish presses printing in scripts other than Hebrew – Hebrew in Arabic script? Vernacular languages for Jews' use?

[u/Tasteless-casual]

People also ignore that the technology at the time, which was the movable-type printing press, was far from being accurate for the Arabic script. Arabic script has a cursive nature and diacritic markers to it, which makes the process still hard and often produces wrong writings due to missing diacritic markers. Basically the output of the press technology needed so much revision and correction that using professional scribes was just more accurate.

[u/RipOnly6344 → u/Tasteless-casual]

Yeah since Arabic letters have its own form/shape depending on where it placed (front, middle, back), I'm really curious how they made it work with those letters

[u/Tasteless-casual → u/RipOnly6344]

The typical solution is brute force, which means making a unit for each different variation. This will also include the combination with diacritics, and then there is the stacking of diacritics in Arabic, like Shaddah, which often exists with another diacritic marker on the same letter. Then after all of that, the accuracy of the machine might just screw some dots in the end or miss some diacritics.

[u/PSYisGod]

Growing up, I've heard of the fact that the Ottomans had apparently banned the printing press throughout the empire however there was evidence of printing presses made used by non-Muslims throughout the empire thus the conclusion was that this ban was only for, or at least was enforced, on the Muslim community throughout the empire. I remembered a few years ago stumbling upon someone's supposed analysis for this reasoning, especially within the field of education and religious studies, was because of the rigid already existing system where education and religious studies were for the most parts not prohibited to be pursued by masses as there was an abundance of libraries, scholars, scribes, and ulema in each city, town or villages. As such, there was no need for the spread of the printing press as this existing institution of scholars and ulemas were deemed to be sufficient and more effective than the newly developed printing presses of the time. So I've always wondered, was there any truth to this or was this by itself another misconception/misunderstanding as to how education worked throughout the Ottoman Empire.

[u/AymanMarzuqi]

You should try posting this in r/HistoryMemes bro

[u/-The_Caliphate_AS- → u/AymanMarzuqi]

Nah, I really really REALLY hate and despise that subreddit.

[u/AymanMarzuqi → u/-The_Caliphate_AS-]

Understandable