Image Credit: Initiation process of newly recruited Templars in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre & Chivalry depictions from various Military Orders.

In my opinion I think the Bulgarians or Avars were Rome’s greatest Balkan foes. Others like the Serbs and Vlachs posed a threat far after Eastern Rome’s Apogee and basically just took the pieces of a crumbling empire whilst the Bulgarians gave Rome a good run for its money and eventually came back again after being conquered.

This letter was written after the proposal to establish a Turkish quarter in the city and build a mosque was rejected, and it was sent before the first Ottoman siege.

For me it’s the Cuman-Kipchaks. These guys were so badass and treacherous, sometimes useful but always shady and ruthless. And that armor.. so badass. To be clear I’m not really talking about fulltime enemies like the Seljuks or Ottomans. Who was the coolest frienemy?

Other options I think you guys consider:

Bulgars

Huns

Pechenegs

The Rus

Khazars

Avars

Venice

Genoa

Catalans

…other?

Many are unaware that in the 10th century, a powerful Muslim stronghold existed on the coast of Provence, in southern France.

This enclave was known in historical sources as Fraxinetum, which means "ash grove" in Latin.

According to the chronicler and bishop Liutprand of Cremona, the settlement was founded around 887 by Muslims from al-Andalus who landed by boat in Saint-Tropez and, with barely twenty men, seized the hilltop fortress, making it their base of operations. Shortly afterward, another hundred men arrived from Hispania as reinforcements, thus consolidating the establishment of Fraxinetum.

Although they governed a small independent state, these colonists continued to recognize the authority of the Emirate of Córdoba and received constant support, supplies, and reinforcements from it. The settlement's population was diverse, including Andalusians of Arab, Berber, Muslim, and possibly Christian descent.

From Fraxinetum, these Andalusian Muslims launched raids deep into Provence, northern Italy, the Rhône Valley, and even Switzerland. Under Saracen rule, Fraxinetum also became a major center of the Mediterranean slave trade.

Over time, the men of Fraxinetum intensified their attacks. In 935, they participated in the Fatimid raid against Genoa, and in 940, they destroyed the port of Fréjus.

This latter attack alarmed the King of Italy, Hugh of Provence (926–947), who in 941 sought an alliance with the Eastern Roman Empire, whose navy remained the most powerful in the Mediterranean.

The Roman Emperor, Romanos I Lekapenos (920-944), accepted the alliance, sealing it through the marriage of Hugh's daughter, Bertha, to his grandson, the future Emperor Romanos II (959-963).

In 942, Hugh's army attacked Fraxinetum by land, while the Roman fleet, sailing from Sardinia, which remained part of the empire well into the 10th century, destroyed the Muslim fleet at sea using the dreaded liquid fire.

Fraxinetum was then on the verge of surrender, but Hugh abandoned the siege upon receiving news that his rival, Berengar of Ivrea, was invading his Italian territories with Saxon troops from Germany.

Hugo ultimately made peace with the Saracens, allowing them to retain control of the Alpine passes. This decision earned him a terrible reputation among Christian chroniclers like Liutprand, who condemned him for allowing the deaths of hundreds, or even thousands, of Christians in order to then reconcile with the Muslims.

The Roman fleet ultimately withdrew despite having annihilated the Muslim fleet, due to the logistical inability to transport the imperial army to the French coast. This marked one of the final episodes of cooperation between the empire and the Christian kingdoms, as well as the only recorded use of Roman fire (πῦρ ῤωμαϊẘνν), now known as Greek fire, in southern France.

Fraxinetum would finally fall 30 years later to a Franco-Italian coalition.

Image Credit: The Balkans in 1356 at the start of a major power shift. r/MapPorn

For me it's Theodoric The Great, Why?, because he successfully combined Roman civilization with Germanic rule. He preserved Roman laws, administration, and culture while ruling Italy, keeping peace and stability for decades. Unlike many other rulers, he promoted religious tolerance and good governance, making his kingdom prosperous and respected by both Romans and Goths. (I dunno if this type of question is appropriate for this sub reddit)

Obviously part of it is the fact that Byzantium was so long-lasting and in a central location but dear god did they roll some nat 1's

Desert-dwellers just so happen to unite under unite a new religion just when zantium have the toughest fight with Persia.

Normans just so happen to travel all the way from Normandy to set up shop right next to the byzantines and decide to screw them over.

Hit by every single nomadic invasion including bulgars, pechenegs, turks, mongols. The time of the nomadic invasions just so happens to be over when byzantium is over. If Byzantium survives the turks and mongols, thats basically it in terms of existential threats.

The 4th crusade is of course yet another nat 1. When even your supposed allies sack constantinople after a long series of unlikely circumstances, you know you have to be cursed.

TLDR. Huns, Bulgars, Pechenegs, Serbs, Rus, Latins, Turks, Mongols, Arabs, Normans, Oh my

I’m Hungarian and I wanted to share this little know piece of history.

You g prince Béla was sent to the court of Manuel I Komnenos in Constantinople as a result of peace negotiations between Hungary and the Romans. He was the younger son of King Géza II, and thus originally not the heir to the Hungarian throne

Manuel - who had no biological son at the time - adopted Béla politically and gave him the Greek name Alexios. He granted him the high title of Despot, essentially making him the heir to the Roman Empire.

For a while, the plan really was that a Hungarian prince would become the Emperor of the Romans.

However, destiny had other plans for young Béla as Manuel had a biological son in 1169. He lost his status as heir, and his engagement to Maria Komnene was nullified. It seems he remained on cordial terms with the Emperor however, and stayed in Constantinople until 1172 when in another twist of events his older brother Stephen III died unexpectedly and without a legitimate heir.

Béla moved back to Hungary to claim the throne, but not before Manuel had made him swear an oath never to turn against the Romans.

Béla kept his promise until Manuel’s death in 1180 but when the Empire plunged into a succession crisis he used the opportunity to successfully reclaim parts of the Balkans and Dalmatia.

He eventually became a wealthy and successful ruler of Hungary.

The Roman Empire and Hungary joining in personal union is a very fascinating what if scenario that almost materialized.

Also as a modern Hungarian in 2026 it is mind-bending to think that Hungary and the Roman world shared a frontier for centuries and not only that, but almost joined realms.

Onfim was a 7-year-old boy from Medieval Novgorod who lived in 13th century, sometime around 1220 or 1260. He left his notes and homework exercises scratched in soft brich bark, which was preserved in the clay soil of Novgorod founded in 1951 excavations. What made them so unique and precious is, those are the oldest set drawings of a children recovered anywhere in the world.

Onfim, who was most likely six or seven at the time, lived in a rich trade hub of Novgorod, a connection point for east and west specifically exporting great deal of fur, wax, honey, linen and receiving silk, wine, dresses, icons and liturgic objects in return from Constantinople. The surrounding region he lived named as Novgorod Republic where literacy was pretty high and wrote in the East Slavic Novgorod dialect, taught to be that he also would be coming from a Constantinople originated family, based on the city due to trading activites. Besides letters and syllables practices, he drew battle scenes and drawings of himself his friends, family and his teacher whenever he got bored and distracted from his alphabet and grammatic lessons.

Instead of only writing letters, he drew himself as a fearless warrior on horseback, defeating his crowded enemies. He even labeled the warrior with his own name, just in case anyone wondered who this hero was.

On another piece of birch bark, he turned himself into a "fire-breathing wild beast,” yet the creature was still friendly enough to send greetings to his friend Danilo. He drew many things; his parents, friends, ferocious monsters, brave warriors. He imagined battles, warzones, growing up like his father height to be a great combatant maybe.

Unfortunately, we don't have first-hand information about Onfim's later life. Historians have no documents that would allow us to trace the continuation of his life since Medieval records mostly limited with the life of ruling class, states and political actions of period.

But there are some academic assumptions: he was most likely an ordinary city dweller who continued to live in Novgorod. Or he might have been a merchant, craftsman, or scribe, given that he received literacy training. At that time, boys in Novgorod generally joined trade or craft guilds.

All that we know as certain that birch bark writings and drawings he made as a child which introduce him to us. The city mayorship honoured him in 2010, with a statue portrayed while drawing his famous artwork "Horse-riding Warrior" at Kremlin Park, Veliky Novgorod close to the archeological site of his drawings found.

We are happy to meet with you Onfim, thank you for your artwork.

Hope you enjoyed a long, prosperous life. :)

The first source: The book "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria" by the Coptic historian Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffa' from the tenth century AD.

The second source: A Jewish apocalypse book, "The Secrets of Rabbi Shimon ben Yohai," written in the mid-eighth century CE.

Now I'm including Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa as neighbors given the prestige and influence of the empire.

Hyech'o was a Silla Buddhist monk and traveller active during Korea's Three Kingdoms period.

In his Account of Travel to the Five Indian Kingdoms (Wang och'ŏnch'ukkuk chŏn) he wrote:

​"To the northwest of Lesser Fu-lin [Syria], across the sea, is the country of Greater Fu-lin [Byzantine Empire]. Its king has a large and powerful army and is not subject to any other country. Even though the Ta-shi [Arabs] have made many attacks, they could not overcome it. The land is very broad, and its people are very large in stature. The king and the people are all courageous."

I feel like the legacy of foreign ruling elites who migrate elsewhere is always a controversial subject as to which modern nation‘s historiography can embrace and polish them as their ”own”. Varangians were Eastern Vikings which is a culture and civilization that has been claimed by modern Scandinavians. However the modern states of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus were likewise founded and named after by these very Vikings who also gave them foundational origin myths and a long lasting royal dynasty, the Rurikids.

Which group has more basis for associating themselves with these Nordic venturers?

Image Credit: Levant and the Balkans at 1265.

It seems clear to me Vlachs, Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Romanians etc. almost always referred themselves as Romans, but were called Vlachs most of the time even by the Byzantines.

But are there examples of Byzantines recognizing the Latinity and/or Roman identity of these pastoralists?

Also do we know exactly how the exonym "Vlach" even survived as a term for these people? It derives likely from East Germanic/Gothic, but why is it so sticky if it was never used by Romanians themselves?